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Thought Leadership

Home Research Thought Leadership
Vaccination Vaccine Syringe Injection Prevention Immunization Treatment Coronavirus Covid 19 Infectious Medicine Concept covid-19 vaccine disease preparing clinical trials vaccination  medicine

Examining vaccination schemes from behavioural economics

30 Dec 2020
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從行為經濟學角度剖析疫苗接種計劃

針對2019冠狀病毒病研製而成的兩種疫苗(Pfizer-BioNTech和Moderna),近日獲得美國食品及藥物管理局的批准,得以在美國廣泛使用;與此同時,其他疫苗的研發也正進行得如火如荼。可以預見,不久將有更多疫苗獲批面市。疫苗研發成功固然是好消息,但要戰勝病毒、重啟經濟,前路依然漫長。

美國NBC新聞早前進行了一項有關政府批核疫苗的調查【註1】,結果顯示在接近3萬名受訪者中,僅有44%的美國成年人表示會接種疫苗,22%表示不會,另有32%則表示不確定。現任美國國家過敏和傳染病研究所所長Anthony Fauci認為,可能需要接近90%的人口具有2019冠狀病毒免疫力,才能遏制疫情【註2】(因為疫苗不是百分百有效,意味着接種疫苗人口比率可能需要超過90%)!然而,美國疫情又最為嚴峻,感染人數和死亡人數都為全球之冠。若美國推廣接種疫苗計劃失敗,未能在病毒變異前達致群體免疫,其他國家的抗疫進程都會受到打擊。因此,釋除民眾的疑慮,讓他們願意接種,對遏制全球疫情至關重要。

金錢誘因 利弊互見

對於這一問題,著名經濟學家Gregory Mankiw和Robert Litan都主張利誘方式(monetary incentive),即以獎金鼓勵市民接種疫苗。Mankiw引用經濟學上的「界外效應」(externality)概念,以支持自己的觀點:如果一個市場的參與者會對市場外的人產生影響,單憑市場的調節作用,未能為整體社會帶來最佳效益;此時,政府應通過課稅或補貼來調節市場,藉以提升社會福祉。舉個例子,工廠生產若不考慮對社會的影響,則過量的廢料排放會造成污染環境;因此政府應徵收排放稅,控制污染量。同理,個人接種疫苗會降低病毒傳播的風險,可惠及他人,因此政府應發放補貼,鼓勵市民大眾接種。

上述提議看似合理,但也有不足之處。George Loewenstein和Cynthia Cryder本月在《紐約時報》撰文指出,人類並非如動物般頭腦簡單,純以利誘可能會適得其反,人們因而思索酬金背後的含義,很自然就假設是風險的代價,並以金額多少來衡量接種疫苗的風險。歸根究柢,真正值得做的事,毋須付錢也會有人願意參與。誘之以利或會導致人們對接種疫苗效益產生疑慮,最終參加接種的人反而減少,實屬下策。

兩位作者亦曾就誘之以利反見風險的現象進行研究【註3】,參加者可透過參與3個醫療實驗獲得不同數額的酬金。根據研究結果,在有關實驗內容和步驟完全相同的情況下,參加者認為酬金數額愈高,其中涉及的風險就愈大。由此可見,若以金錢回報鼓勵接種疫苗,部分人反會因懷疑風險較大而不願接種。

出奇制勝 價高者得

Loewenstein和Cryder在文章進一步提出,將接種疫苗與金錢回報扯上關係,也會削弱利他主義者的參與意願。試想,要是一個人原本出於無私的崇高目的參與其事,但得知事後可獲金錢,則或會因擔心別人有所誤會,以為他只為酬金,非求「正義」,而可能會放棄或延遲接種。為了化解這個矛盾,兩位作者主張改以非金錢的回報為誘因,為市民提供簡單直接的動機,例如規定必須持有疫苗接種證明,才可乘坐國際航班;既為接種疫苗加入個人優惠,又可免與貪念掛鈎,可謂一舉兩得。

此外,諾貝爾經濟學獎得主Richard Thaler本月也在《紐時》發表的文章中建議,在早期疫苗供應不足的時候,可採用「慈善拍賣」(charity auction)方式,將一部分疫苗的優先接種名額向專業體育界或影藝界拍賣(有關機構都最有動機全面復工),然後將拍賣所得款項用以援助受疫情影響最大的弱勢社群,以助渡過難關。

表面看來,拍賣疫苗似乎於理不合,但Thaler的論據有三。首先,拍賣可達致財富再分配,有利於社會公平。其次,就算以非價格競爭手段決定接種的優先次序,難免產生黑市;既然如此,倒不如索性創造一個市場,讓交易資金能有一個好去處。第三,在資本主義社會,富人享有更多的醫療資源是事實,儘管也許不合理,卻不容否認,而拍賣只不過體現這一事實而已,並非偏袒富人。此外,Thaler認為體育和電影明星對大眾也有引導作用,如果他們願意為疫苗支付可觀金額,普羅大眾也會隨之認同疫苗的價值,對推廣接種疫苗足以發揮積極作用。

靈活分配 效益倍增

綜合上文各種觀點,筆者建議,可將Thaler的拍賣方案略作調整,並加以補充,改為「慈善配對捐助」(charity matching donation):任何團體可保證向指定慈善機構(如新冠疫情支援基金)捐出固定款項,而獲得分配疫苗,並為其成員接種。如此一來,「有條件接種」就能肯定疫苗在一般人心目中的價值,與慈善掛鈎,亦即將接種疫苗等同善舉。同時,捐款更會撥歸慈善機構,以供協助有需要的群眾,堪稱「一石三鳥」。慈善配對捐助亦可根據對象調整捐助金額,擴大靈活性,從行業巨頭到民間團體,都可藉此途徑獲得接種機會;長遠而言,意義同樣重大。

縱然疫苗研發成功,假使欠缺良好分配機制,恐怕難以奏效。各國政府不妨借鑑行為經濟學的研究,審慎制定有關政策,早日推廣疫苗,期望最終戰勝病毒。

註1: “Poll: Less than half of Americans say they’ll get a coronavirus vaccine”, Ben Kamisar and Melissa Holzberg, NBC News, 18 August 2020

註2: “How Much Herd Immunity Is Enough?”, Donald G. McNeil Jr., The New York Times, December 24, 2020

註3: Cryder, C. E., London, A. J., Volpp, K. G., & Loewenstein, G. (2010). “Informative inducement: Study payment as a signal of risk”. Social Science & Medicine, 70(3), 455–464.

 

程騰歡 港大經管學院副教授
牟昊鑫 港大經管學院研究助理

(本文同時於二零二零年十二月三十日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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